grammar

Grammar

Grammar is the way we arrange words to make proper sentences. Word level grammar covers verbs and tenses, nouns, adverbs etc. Sentence level grammar covers phrases, clauses, reported speech etc.

Grammars: Sentence Structure and Types of Sentences

Sentence structure is the way a sentence is arranged, grammatically. The sentence structure of your writing includes where the noun and verb fall within an individual sentence.

Sentence structure depends on the language in which you're writing or speaking. It's common in English for a simple sentence to look like this: "She throws the ball." In this case, the sentence structure is "Subject, verb, object." There are many ways to make the sentence structure much more complicated while still providing a framework for the information you're conveying and being grammatically correct.

Types of tenses :

1. The Present Tense:

The verb that refers to the present time is said to be in the present tense; as

I write this letter to help you.

2. The Past Tense:

The verb that refers to the past time is in the Past Tense.; as

I wrote this letter yesterday.

3. The Future Tense:

The verb that refers to the future time is in the Future Tense.; as

I shall write another letter tomorrow.

Note:

Sometimes a past tense may refer to present time and a present tense may express future time; as

I wish I knew the answer. (I’m sorry I don’t know the answer.) Past Tense – Present time.

1. The Present Tense:

(a) Simple Present Tense

(b) Present Continuous Tense

(c) Present Perfect Tense

(d) Present Perfect Continuous Tense

2. The Past Tense:

(a) Simple Past Tense

(b) Past Continuous Tense

(c) Past Perfect Tense

(d) Past Perfect Continuous Tense

3. The Future Tense:

(a) Simple Future Tense

(b) Future Continuous Tense

(c) Future Perfect Tense

(d) Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Type of clauses:

Independent and Dependent Clauses

An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone. You can think of this as a simple sentence. There is a subject, verb, and complete thought. For example, if I were to write: 'John passed the ball,' I would have a complete, simple sentence. I have a subject, John; a verb, passed; and a complete thought, the ball. Although independent clauses can stand alone, we often join them with other clauses to make more complex sentences. Complex sentences allow us to use various types of sentences in our writing, which is important. We do not want to bore our audience by having the same type of simple sentence structure throughout!

A dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand alone; it depends on another clause to make it a complete sentence. You can recognize a dependent clause because it starts with a subordinate conjunction. A subordinate conjunction is a word that joins ideas together and shows the relationship between ideas. Some of the subordinate conjunctions that you may already know are 'because,' 'although,' 'where,' and 'after.' Subordinate conjunctions may represent time, cause and effect, and contrast.

It is important to remember that a dependent clause is not a complete thought. For example, if I were to write, 'Because it was not his turn,' this would not be a complete thought. Your audience does not know what happened because it was not his turn. To make a dependent clause a complete thought, you should combine it with an independent one: 'Because it was not his turn, John passed the ball.'

Relative Clause

There are three main types of dependent clauses: relative, noun, and adverbial.

A relative clause is an adjective clause that describes the noun. It is important to remember that a relative clause is not a complete thought! They are used in sentences to further describe the noun.

You can identify a relative clause by looking for three main components:

1. It will contain a subject and a verb.

2. It will begin with a relative pronoun or relative adverb. These would include 'who,' 'whom,' 'whose,' 'that,' and 'which' for a pronoun and 'when,' 'where,' or 'why' for an adverb. Looking for these signal words can help you identify this type of clause!

3. The relative clause will function as an adjective, answering questions about the noun, such as: 'Which one?' 'What kind?' 'How many?'

There are two ways to write a relative clause. First, you would have a relative pronoun, subject, and then verb. For example, 'when we go to the movies.' 'When' is the relative pronoun, 'we' is the subject, and 'go' is the verb.

Second, you would have a relative pronoun as a subject followed by the verb. For example, 'who walked out of the store.' In this example, 'who' is our subject and 'walked' is the verb. Or for another example, 'that swarmed us.' In this example, 'that' is the subject and 'swarmed' is the verb.

Noun Clause

A noun clause is a clause that plays the role of a noun. For example (noun clauses shaded):

·         I like what I see.

·         I know that the tide is turning.

·         I've met the man who won the lottery.

(Not all agree this is a noun clause. See Note on the right.)

Compare the three examples above to these:

·         I like cakes.

·         I know London.

·         I've met Madonna.

The words in bold are all nouns. This shows that shaded clauses in the first three examples are functioning as nouns, making them noun clauses.

Like any noun, a noun clause can be a subject, an object, or a complement.

In a sentence, a noun clause will be a dependent clause. In other words, a noun clause does not stand alone as a complete thought.

C.A.L.L (Computer Aided Language Learning)

C.A.L.L

(Computer Aided Languange Learning)

Despite the enormous potential of computer assisted language learning (CALL) in teaching and learning foreign language, no serious action has been taken to develop this phase of education at schools and universities in Iran. A group of 52 students were divided into two experimental and control groups. During the study, both groups were trained 15 grammar points and related examples. The result of data analysis showed that experimental group outperformed the control group. The result of study can have pedagogical implication for language teachers, in that they can use e-mail as a useful way of teaching large numbers of grammar points.

Computer assisted language learning (CALL) is both exciting and frustrating as a field of research and practice. It is exciting because it is complex, dynamic and quickly changing – and it is frustrating for the same reasons (Hubbard, 2009). Computer Assisted Language Learning is succinctly defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997) as “the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning” (p.1). Chapelle (2001) suggests that “This term is widely used to refer to the area of technology and second language teaching and learning despite the fact that revisions for the term are suggested regularly”. Beatty (2003) offers the following characterization: “a definition of CALL that accommodates its changing nature is any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language” (p.7).

CALL programs/materials include:

1. CALL-specific software: applications designed to develop and facilitate language learning, such as CDROMs, web-based interactive language learning exercises/quizzes.

2. Generic software: applications designed for general purposes, such as word-processors (Word), presentation software (PowerPoint), and spreadsheet (Excel), that can be used to support language learning.

3. Web-based learning programs: online dictionaries, online encyclopedias, news/magazine sites, e-texts, web-quests, web publishing, blog, wiki, etc.

4. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) programs: synchronous - online chat; asynchronous - email, discussion forum, message board.

Though CALL has developed gradually over the last 30 years, this development can be categorized in terms of three somewhat distinct phases(Warschauer, 1996):

1. The first phase of CALL, conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and '70s, was based on the then-dominant behaviorist theories of learning. Programs of this phase entailed repetitive language drills and can be referred to as "drill and practice" (or, more pejoratively, as "drill and kill").

2. The second phase of CALL was based on the communicative approach to teaching which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s. Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the previous decade did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much value.

3. Integrative approaches to CALL are based on two important technological developments of the last decade: Multimedia and Internet.

Multimedia technology exemplified today by the CD-ROM, allows a variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) to be accessed on a single machine. What makes multimedia even more powerful is that it also entailshypermedia,which means that the multimedia resources are all linked together and that learners can navigate their own path simply by pointing and clicking a mouse. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC), which has existed in primitive form since the 1960s but has only become wide-spread in the last years, is probably the single computer application to date with the greatest impact on language teaching. The emergence of the World Wide Web now known simply as "the Web" in the early 1990smarked a significant change in the use of communications technology for all computer users. e-mail, a form of asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication, has been called “the mother of all Internet applications” (Warschauer, Shetzer,&Meloni, 2000, p.3).

 In more general terms, CALL can be thought of as the use of computers to help learn languages. As a sub-category of Computer-Aided Learning (CAL), CALL deals exclusively with learning languages. Specific examples of CALL tools and utilities include games, tests, exercises, and word processing, and their use in a CALL session is determined by the syllabus, software, teacher, or learner. The popularity of CALL is constantly increasing as multimedia developments and technology are advancing. In the last few years, CALL systems have become fully integrated with audio and video support, creating interesting and attractive presentations. With the Internet emerging, a new platform for CALL systems has evolved. Thus, there has been a move from CD-ROM-based CALL to online Web-based CALL, enabling more connectivity and interactivity with other students or teachers. Important examples of why CALL has moved to Web-based mediums include the ability to carry out audio and videoconferencing, use chat rooms and e-mail, and communicate with native speakers of the language.

Computers can be tremendously useful tools for English language instruction. They can process data quickly and integrate voice, music, video, pictures, and text into lessons.  They can be programmed to tailor instruction and tests for each individual learner.  They can even be used to make students feel more comfortable and willing to take risks, because of their "untiring, unjudgmental nature" (Butler-Pascoe 1997:20). With that, a lot of researchers argue that computers should be used for language instruction. 

 While there are many potential benefits to be derived from these “machines”, the issue now is not whether but how computers should be used for language instruction. Regardless of the speculated disadvantages of using computers for language instruction, advanced by some individuals or groups, computers and CALL materials are already being used for English language instruction and will continue to be used.   It can be used as a modern approach towards language teaching and learning in which the computer is utilized as an aid to the presentation, and as reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned by usually including substantial interactive materials.   Over the years, with the emergence of the World Wide Web or the Internet, CALL widened its scope.   It has become communicative, interactive and explorative such that audio and video exercises or activities can easily be integrated.

The CALL is a milestone as far as language teaching is concerned.   And with that realization in mind, this project, “Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL): Interactive Teaching in Comarts Using a Personal Website in STI-Iligan, S.Y. 2006-2007”, is presented. 

Computer as drill and practice

In this use of CALL, computers are viewed as a tool for saving time with the immediate feedback. The learning principles behind Drill and Practice is the Behaviorism Learning Theory and the Audiolingual approach language to teaching. The main aim of Drill and Practice is to review the content / background knowledge, and to assist the learners to master separate language skills (such as reading, listening, etc.)
Drill and practice consists of three steps: Providing stimulus; Receiving active response from the learner; and Giving immediate feedback.
There are several types of drill and practice activities (exercises) such as Paired Associate (Matching); Sentence Completion; Multiple Choice; Part Identification; True-False; and Short-Answer questions.
Well-designed Drill and Practice programs can record the learner’s progress and scores and the time a student spends on each exercise. Some programs add timing features to help the learner to control their speed while practicing. Drill and practice CALL programs in the early years focused on practicing language skills and components separately (such as vocabulary, grammar (such as irregular verbs, past tense, articles), reading, and translation. A lot of drill and practice exercises were produced by classroom teachers. There are several limitations of Drill and Practice exercises such as the lack of interaction and content materials which are not authentic, meaningful, and contextualized (Felix, 1998). As a result, the receptive language drill and practice programs of the 1960s –1970s did not produce enough authentic communication for the learners.
Another type of Drill and Practice is so called "contextualized activities" such as gap filling, reconstructing texts, etc. Examples of these programs are those developed in early 1980s such as Cloze exercises, Text reconstruction, and Eclipse (by Higgins), etc. A key authoring program used to generate text reconstruction is Storyboard, written by John Higgins (Levy, 1997).
 
 
  

Computer as tutor

The role of the computer as tutor is to present to the learners the content of the lesson as text graphics, video, animation, or slides, including learning activities, drills and practice. The computer serves as a means for delivering instructional materials.

The program consists of the following stages: Introduction stage (stating aims, background knowledge), Presentation of the content, exercises and/or testing; and Giving the feedback.

Examples of CALL tutorial programs are:

o    Grammar : Longman Grammar Software; Grammar Expert Plus; Tense Buster (Clarity Software); Grammar Mastery (ALA); Grammar Rom (Addison Wesley Longman); Grammar 3D: Contextualized Practice for Learners of English (Heinle & Heinle).

o    Reading : Read It! Study Skills (Clarity Language Consultants) (EAP reading); RocketReader (1998) (a speed reading program); ReadFlex (Speed Reading); Reading for English (Athelstan) (Reading Comprehension); SEEN: Tutorials for Critical Reading (KenCD Software) (tutorials designed to develop analytical thinking and critical reading skills); Accelerated Reader (Advantage Learning Systems).

o    Writing : Paragraph Punch (a writing tutor for effective paragraph); WriteExpress Easy Letters (effective business letters); Power Editing (an interactive tutorial on how to edit and revise sentences); Report Writer for Science and Engineering Reports (Clarity Language Consultants) (EFL/ESL report science and engineer writing).

o    Speaking, Pronunciation & Listening: Learn to Speak (The Learning Company); English Pronunciation (1997-98) (Okanagan University College); Dragon, Naturally Speaking (A voice recognition program); See It, Hear It, Say It! (Courseware Publishing International); Accent Improvement (SpeakWare); Real English (Wiser Software).

o    Integrated Skills / Courseware: Ellis (CALI), Dynamic English (DynEd); English Discoveries (Berlitz); English Language Development (Jostens); Rosetta Stone (Fairfield Language Technologies); Planet English (Unisearch Ltd and the University of New South Wales); Issues in English (Protea Software); Active English(Courseware Publishing International).

Computer used for simulation / problem solving

Simulations and problem solving is used to foster analysis, critical thinking, discussion and writing activities. The computer is not used much for tutorial purposes. The program is designed to create language interaction through problematic situations, conditions or problems challenging for the learner to solve. Many simulation programs are problem solving games, which are entertaining and educational ("edutainment").

Oregon Trail (1995-1998) (CD-ROM)<http://www.cd-romlink.com> is one of the earliest educational simulation problem solving games. The learners are challenged to make a series of decisions to guide their party from Missouri to Oregon by covered wagon. These decisions begin with choosing a departure date, through the daily decisions relating to pace, restocking and direction. The learners face a series of obstacles: fires, floods, injuries, no water, bad water, no grass, food spoilage, etc. The learners have to make life-or-death decisions. Though Oregon Trail is not directly designed for ELT classes, the teacher can create learning activities in both receptive and productive skills.

Other educational simulation problem solving games are Carmen Sandiego, A Day in the Life (1995), and Carmen Sandiego Word Detective (1999), which helps learners to master essential language skills, Amazon Trail II (The Learning Company) which is a simulation of a trip up the Amazon River.

Computer as game

The main principle behind computer gaming is that "Learning is Fun." The main aim is to create a pleasurable learning environment , and to motivate the language learner. However, good educational games should have clear educational objectives.

CALL games and simulation games are similar in that both are designed to motivate students to learn through entertainment. However, they are different in certain ways. Simulation games always use simulations (real life situations) in the presentation of a game, while CALL games focus on providing fun, but challenging environment to the learner. Though CALL games have clear learning objectives, they are different from Tutorials and Drill and Practice. The main function of CALL games is not so much to present the language content as tutorials do but to provide entertainment to the learner.

Examples of CALL vocabulary games are Spelling Games, Spelling Bee and Magic Hat, Scrambled Word, Word Worm, Hangman, Word Order, Find a Word, Word Puzzles, Spelling Buddy, Cross Words, I Love Spelling (DK multimedia), Scrabble Deluxe (Virgin Games) (Computerized version of the board game), etc.
 
 

Computer as tool for teachers and learners

Word Processors

The most common tool used by teachers and learners in CALL is probably word processors. Word Processors are tools for creating documents for making handouts, sheets, desktop publishing, letters, and flyers for language teaching and learning. There is a variety of word processors available, ranging from high quality programs such as Microsoft Word <http://www.microsoft.com>, Corel Word Perfect <http://www.corel.com > to simpler and cheaper programs such as Microsoft Works<http:www.microsoft.com>, and Claris Works <http://www.apple.com/appleworks>. Teachers can choose ones suitable for their students.

Spelling Checkers

Spelling checkers are tools for ELT teachers and learners for conducting spelling check. Most high quality word processing programs such as Microsoft Word, Word Perfect have built in spelling checkers. However, there are separate spelling checking programs available such as Spell it Deluxe (1997) <http://www.davd.com>, or Sentry Spelling-Checker Engine.

Grammar Checkers

ELT teachers can use grammar checker programs to check and point out grammatical problems in writing. Like spelling checkers, grammar checkers can be a separate program such as Grammatik or built-in programs such as the Grammar Check in Microsoft Word. However, these grammar checkers still have limited abilities and are intended for native speakers. So they are not recommended for ESL/EFL learners since they may be confusing.

Concordancers

Teachers and learners can use concordancing software to search in huge databases to find all the uses of particular words. It might be confusing for ESL/EFL beginners. The best Concordancer for ELT teachers and students is Oxford MicroConcord . The software includes a total of about 1,000,000 words from British newspapers.

Collaborative Writing

Collaborative writing is software that helps the learner to write collaboratively on computers, which are linked in a local area network. Daedalus Integrated Writing Environment is the most popular one. This software includes real-time discussion, word processing, electronic mail, brainstorming, and a dictionary.

Reference

At present many CD versions of encyclopedias, dictionaries, thesauruses, maps and other references are available to the teachers and learners. Popular reference CD-ROM programs are Microsoft Encarta 99< http://www.iac-on-encarta.com/>, Longman Dictionary of American English, Oxford Picture Dictionary CD-ROM (1997) <http://www.oup-usa.org>and BookShelf <http://www.Microsoft.com>. Microsoft Encarta Interactive World Atlas 2000 <Http//www.microsoft.com> Roget 's thesaurus.com <http://www.thesaurus.com/>, WordWeb, (a thesaurus /dictionary), Collins On-Line Dictionaries, American Heritage Dictionary (Softkey); Longman Multimedia Dictionary, Grammar Reference (US English grammar usage), American Heritage Talking Dictionary (The Learning Company). Please note that entries in many of these programs may be biased towards the country of origin.

Generally, ELT teachers use commercially available CALL software. However, much software does not meet the demand of the learners or does not suit the learning objectives. Teachers need to adapt or create their own materials from scratch. In this case, the teacher has to become an author, or a teacher-programmer (Levy, 1997). The authoring software allows teachers to select appropriate content and learning activities according to their students’ needs. There is a variety of authoring software ranging from pre-scripted authoring programs such as Authorware (Macromedia), Toolbook (Asymetrix Corporation), etc. which requires the user to write scripts, to customized template authoring programs and allow the teacher to create customized teaching activities and exercises such as Storyboard, Clozemaker, ChoiceMaster, GapMaster in Wida’s Authoring Suite, Wiser Educator, Author Plus (Clarity Language Consultants), Authorware Attain (Macromedia).

Internet applications

Computers can be connected to the internet and can incorporate interactive multimedia: text, graphics, audio, video, and animation. It can be said that the explosive growth of the internet has given new life to interactive media and CALL.

To access text, graphics, audio, video, and animation published on the internet, the teacher and learner need to use "Web browser" software, a computer based graphical program that allows users to search and explore information on the internet. Common Web browsers are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. It is expected that the internet will become one of the most popular mediums for CALL because it allows for world-wide distance education.

 The use of the internet is easy. The user usually interacts just by clicking the mouse. Easy navigation is an advantage of using the internet in linking to different sites around the world.

The followings are internet applications that ELT teachers can use for language teaching.

Electronic mail (E-mail)

 Computer-mediated communication makes it easy for ELT learners to have direct authentic communication with the teacher, other learners or interested people around the world by using e-mail. E-mail is an excellent method for teaching interactive writing. One of its advantages is that it provides interaction with native speakers through pen-pal correspondence. E-mail writing is considered to be more personal and meaningful than classroom writing activities. (Felix, 1998). A problem concerning interaction through E-mail is that the communication does not take place at the same time (asynchronous).

There is a variety of e-mail programs that can recommended for the learner. The most popular program on the Unix platform is Pine of Washington University <http://gpu.srv.ualberta.ca/HELP/mail/pine1.html>. Eudora <http://www.eudora.com> and Netscape Mail <http://www.netscape.com> are easy to use. However Pine and Eudora require direct conection to the internet through the server in which the user is a member. If the user wants to access to e-mail anywhere and anyplace in the world, he/she can apply for free web-based e-mail services such as Hotmail.com <http://www.hotmail.com>, Yahoo.com<http://www.yahoo.com>, Mail.com <http://www.mail.com>, AltaVista.com <http://www.AltaVista.com>, etc.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a facility for transferring files over the internet. The original FTP was available on the UNIX system. But now FTP is also available on the web, and it is becoming more user-friendly than the one operating on the UNIX system.

When the user connects to a remote computer with FTP, he/she is communicating between the two machines: one local and one remote. Once you connect to the remote computer with FTP, you can do several jobs concerning files such as sending local files (text and binary--images, and sound) to the remote site, retrieving files from the remote site, changing directories, naming and deleting files both on the local and remote sites.

ELT teachers can use FTP to download or updownload files such as software programs, texts, images, sounds, videos. A lot of FTP sites are vailable on the internet at several servers such as the FTP server at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign < ftp://ftp.ncsa.uiuc.edu/ >Washington University at St. Louis < ftp://wuarchive.wustl.edu/ >, FTP server at Monash University <ftp://ftp.monash.edu.au>.

World Wide Web (WWW)

Computer networks have allowed to conect to information around the world, and share millions of documents—texts, graphics, sounds, and video via hypertext keywords or links. WWW or the web now has absorbed many of the above services. For example, the web can now do e-mail, ftp, chat and voice chat, desktop conferencing, and MOOs (Multiple-user-domains Object Oriented), which allows for real time communication.

The WWW provides a rich resource of "authentic materials" for langauge teaching and learning. Using web browsers such as Netscape <http://www.netscape.com> and Internet Explorer<http://www.microsoft.com/>, the WWW yields good (and bad!) resources for the teacher and the learner. Learners can find information which suits their own interests and fields of study.

The teacher and learner can search for the following materials on WWW:

a) Texts

Texts can be downloaded, saved as .html or .text files, and printed and kept as worksheets. Teacher can download suitable texts and put them on the school’s website for further reading assignments or doing English exercises such as grammar, vocabulary, etc. There is a wealth of texts on a variety of topics on the WWW that the teacher and the learner can choose to serve their own interest. You can find texts in almost any field on the WWW. However, there are some limitations on using text files on the WWW. Many web sites consis of poor written texts with grammar and spelling mistakes or poor writing style. The teacher must be selective in choosing text files for ELT learners. A good website is CNN News Room <http://lc.byuh.edu/cnn_n/cnn-n_page.html>. The student will learn both news and do some language exercises such as vocabulary, grammar, reading, etc.

a.              Pictures

Pictures can be very useful in language teaching and learning. Pictures can convey meaning and stimulate language. By using a web browser, teachers can download, save and print pictures and keep them as a resource for language teaching. There is a variety of pictures on the web. Many pictures are copyright free for educational use. AltaVista <http:www.altavista.com>is a good search engine for seaching pictures on the internet.

b.              Audio Files

A lot of web sites provide audio clips that the user can download and store for use in langauge teaching and learning. With advanced technologies such as the RealAudio program <http://www.real.com>, the teacher can download "live" audio files such as news, short stories, songs for use in class and self access center or for individual listening at home. Web sites that provide audio files are such as CNN News<http://www.cnn.com>, BBC English <http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice>, etc.

c.               Video Files

The WWW is also a rich resource for Video files (viedo films, video clips, digital movies). To view video files, there is a need for video and movie viewing programs such as RealVideo<http://www.real.com>, QuickTime Movie<http://www.apple.com/quicktime/>, which can be downloaded from the internet. Useful videos and movies that can be downloaded and saved are: previews of video films, movies, conversations or dialogues among people, news, speeches, and documentary films. Teachers can use videos and movies with other medias, such as textbooks, pictures, handouts, or audio materials. However, there are some technical limitations with downloading video materials. Video clips, which are usually short, are easy to download and manipulate. However, long videos and movies, which need a lot of computer RAM and disk spaces, always cause problems. The computer must be powerful and must have a fast internet connection.

d.              Chat & Voice Chat

Computer-mediated communication allows users to exchange real time instant messages (no time delay as in e-mail). The application of this capacity are chat programs that allow users to connect to remote sites to send and receive instant written messages. "Talk" is an original version of chat on the UNIX system. Web-based chat is easier to use than the UNIX system "talk". Examples of chat programs on the web are: ICQ < http://wwp.icq.com/>, IRC (Internet Relay Chat) < http://www.ircnet.org/>, Yahoo <http://www.yahoo.com>. With the progress in real time audio technologies, voice chat is becoming available (e.g. Yahoo Voice Chat <http://chat.yahoo.com>). Voice chat allows users to exchange real time-instant digital voice messages with users in remote sites.

Chat provides a strong motivation for interactive and communicative use of language. ELT teachers can use chat sessions as a means for meaningful authentic communication with the real audience. The learner can join several chat groups according to his/her own interest.

e.              Desk-Top Teleconferencing

One of the most important aspects of MOOs (Multiple-user-domains Object Oriented or Multi-User Object Oriented systems) is communication (verbal, nonverbal, expressing feelings) with people connected to the MOO from all around the world. MOOs evolved from MUDs (Multi-User Domains). MOOs allows for real time communication, simulation, and role play among users. The users can build their own new "rooms" and write the description, to determine who could come in and out. The user can even create their own virtual home.

Recently a lot of special MOOs have been set up for ESL learners to participate such as CU-SEEMe <http://www.cuseeme.com>. In using MOOs special client software programs such as TinyFugue (for Unix, MUDDweller (for Mac), or MUDwin (for Windows) are needed.

MOOs provide a strongly motivated means for meaningful authentic communication with a real audience. Those who are interested in this desk-top teleconferencing can join MOOs on many websites such as the CU-SeeMe Website <http://www.cu.seeme.com>, and at Rachel's Super MOO List <http://cinemaspace.berkeley.edu/~rachel/moolist/>.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF CALL

While Section 3 above shows some of the benefits of how CALL can be used for language teaching and learning, CALL also has some limitations. This section reviews advantages and limitations of CALL.

Advantages of CALL

Learner’s Factors

• CALL can adapt to the learners' abilities and preferences.

• CALL can adapt to the learners’ cognitive and learning styles.
• CALL can adapt to the learner’s self-paced learning. CALL can be used for remedial work for slow learners and to accelerate learning for fast learners.
• CALL offers individualized and private learning.
• CALL, with branching capability, provides choices and paths for learning, allowing learners to work independently.
• CALL allows learners to control their own learning process and progress.

Motivation and Attitudes

• CALL provides strong motivation for learning. Students will often do on a computer what they are reluctant to do in a textbook or paper-pencil.
• Some CALL features such as graphics, sounds, animation, video, audio are interesting and motivating for many learners.
• CALL can improve learners’ attitudes towards learning English.

• CALL (internet) provides authentic communication that motivates students to use language outside language classroom.

Feedback and Progress Record

• CALL can provide immediate responsiveness and feedback.
• CALL provides accurate records of the learner’s performance and progress.

Teacher’s Roles and the Relationship with the Learner

• CALL can change the relationship between teacher and student.
• The teacher becomes a facilitator rather than a person who controls the learning environment.

• CALL is predictable and non-judgemental.

Mastery Learning

• CALL provides opportunities for mastery-learning language skills.
• CALL can lower the amount of time required to master some materials.

Co-operative Learning

• CALL (e.g.simulation games) encourages learners to work cooperatively in problem solving.

• CALL allows learners to learn cooperatively as a result of working together (such as group works, and discussion.)

Communication

• CALL (e.g. games and puzzles) create information gaps which provide learners a need to communicate or interact with each other or with the program.

• CALL (e.g. e-mail, chat, moos) promote direct communicative skills for the learners.
• CALL (e.g. e-mail, chat, moos) provides authentic, real communication with native speakers of English outside the classroom.

Access to Information and Cultures

• CALL (e.g. CD-ROM and the internet) can increase access to information to the learners.
• CALL (CD-ROM and the internet) allow learners to acess to cultures around the world.

Learning Environment

• CALL is a neutral medium. Compared to teachers, computers do not lose patience, get angry, or play favourites as some teachers do. This creates a safe learning environment.
• CALL can provide an active and positive learning environment.
• Integration of a variety of multimedia such as texts, graphics, sound, animation, and video, allowing for creating authentic meaningful language learning environments.

• CALL (the internet) has no limitations regarding different time zones and places.

Cost Effectiveness

• CALL is cost effective.

Limitations of CALL

Cost

• Schools may lack funds for CALL implementations. Some CALL hardware and software are very expensive. It is problematic in schools that have limited funding.

• The design of good CALL software needs expensive equipment and cooperative team work.

• Not all students can access CALL (e.g. the internet). In many developing countries, there is a problem of "have" and "have not" internet between the rich and the poor.

Teacher's Attitudes and Anxiety

• ELT teachers may have negative attitudes towards CALL.
• There is fear that CALL might replace teachers.

• Many ELT teachers are anxious about CALL because they have limited skills and experience in CALL theory and delivery.
• There is fear that the computer might isolate students from social activities.

Training

• A lot of ELT teachers still lack training and skills in using the CALL, and training costs are high.
• Training learners to use computers takes students’ time away from other educational activities.
• ELT teachers may lack the necessary computer-related skills.

Hardware, Compatability, and Technical Support

• Computer hardware is difficult to install and maintain for classroom teachers.

• Spontaneous language production (e.g. speaking) is still limited by the hardware capabilities such as voice-recognition and voice recording.
• Graphics and sounds provided on the computer are sometimes unrealistic and incomprehensible.

• CALL presentation is sometimes restricted by the capabilities of the hardware (e.g. not enough RAM to run big CD-ROM programs).

• Disk space is still problematic for storing large multimedia files.

• CALL (e.g. CD-ROMs) are sometimes not suitable for all computers, platforms and hardware.

• Web pages appear differently on different computer platforms (e.g. Windows, Mac). It sometimes makes students confused.

Software

• There are many poor CALL software programs due to the lack of programmers with linguistic knowledge, language teaching approaches, and experiences.
• A lot of CALL software (e.g. Drill and Practice type) focus on teaching separate, discrete language skills and component, ignoring discourse, contexts, and cultures.

• Some CALL (e.g. the internet) does not support face to face communication (e.g. E-mail, chat) well, though some present technologies can provide sounds and pictures during communication there are some limitations with speed, sound and picture quality.

• A lot of CALL activities (e.g. Behavioristic CALL) are limited to certain types of exercises such as multiple choices, true false, matching, ignoring question-answer interactions.

• There are a lot of web pages of poor quality. There is a lot of junk on the internet. Teachers need to evaluate internet web pages with great care before downloading or assigning the students to access them.
• At present CALL software still lacks ability of abstract reasoning and problem-solving processes.

  
  
  
  
  
 

Accessing and Searching CALL

• CALL (e.g. the Internet) is not yet fast enough. Access to audio, video and graphic files is usually slow.

• Searching on CALL (e.g. the internet) is not always easy. It is common to get lost on the Internet since it is non-linear.
• Searching on the Internet takes time due to lack of effective search engines on the web. Many users end up with no information after searching for many hours.
• Access to the internet is not so easy. Sometimes the lines are busy due to over use.
• In some areas it takes time to access the internet via modem, and the users are frustrated due to some limitations of telephone lines.

Feedback and Evaluation

• Feedback is still limited. It has to rely a lot on the teacher’s input.
• Feedback on quizzes (e.g. on the internet) is sometimes slow.
• Evaluation and exams on the net is still difficult. It may cause some in convenience and students might cheat since it is not closely supervised (compared to conventional tests using paper and pencil).

TIPS IN USING CALL

The following are tips for ELT teachers in using CALL:

• Use CALL to serve educational purposes. Teachers should not jump in the bandwagon just because other people do. Many teachers use CALL because it is a new technology (like the language lab used to be about 30 years ago) without considering whether it serve or gives true value to educational objectives.

• Do not isolate CALL from the rest of the curriculum. Try to integrate CALL with other subjects or disciplines in the curriculum. Using CALL across the curriculum will make it more integrative.

• Consider CALL as one of many learning resources. Teachers should try to incorporate other learning resources and materials such as books, magazines, video, audio tape, with their teaching.

• Choosing appropriate CALL software for the learner, such as age, need, and interest is important. Software evaluation guides are important tools for the teachers in choosing suitable software.
• Using CALL is not the end in itself. Follow-up activities are also important. A lot of lessons end when CALL finishes in class. In fact, follow up activities such as group discussion, writing assignments, searching for more data from other learning sources e.g. interviews, and surveys are also important.

• Do not expect that all students in class would enjoy working on the computer. A lot of students prefer human interaction (such as student – teacher or student – student ) than with the computer. Teachers should provide alternative activities for those students who prefer traditional learning approaches.

• Do not expect that all students can work easily with the computer. Many students take much longer to learn certain skills such as using the keyboard, the mouse, etc., while other students pick up these skills easily. Teachers must be patient and willing to help the slow groups.

• Try to incorporate a variety of activities on CALL such as desktop publishing (e.g. word processing), e-mail correspondence, web publishing (e.g. home pages, newspapers), chats and moos, and web based assessment.

• Do not expect that teaching with computers would be easy for all teachers. It can be exhausting or may require a lot of preparation such as setting up the computer lab, preparing suitable software and materials (printed and online), including follow up activities. Team work seems to be the best solution for implementing CALL in school.

CONCLUSION

CALL has important potential for English language teaching. If used properly with clear educational objectives, CALL can interest and motivate learners of English. CALL can increase information access to the learner, provide flexibility to instruction and thereby better serve the individual's learning pace, cognitive style and learning strategies. CALL allows learners to control their own learning process and progress. Using effective and suitable software applications, CALL can provide communicative meaningful language learning environments. Good quality and well-designed CALL software can offer a balance of controlled practice and free communicative expression to the learners, including immediate feedback. In the future, with the advance of computer technologies, it is expected that CALL will be able to absorb some teaching functions. However, despite greater user-friendliness, and effectiveness, CALL will never replace the teacher. Like other new technologies, CALL is not a magic solution to language teaching. The effectiveness of CALL relies on how CALL is utilized to meet language learning goals for individualized learners in specific educational settings.

Related Source:

·    https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042814026524

·    https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264042313_Computer-Aided_Language_Learning

·    http://web.warwick.ac.uk/CELTE/tr/ovCALL/booklet1.htm